Salam is a scientific and peer-reviewed journal that has received academic accreditation from the Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan. It is registered under the number (0049-21-RCTD-PNJR) and holds the ISSN numbers 3078-9583 (Online) and 3078-9575 (Print). The journal publishes academic discussions in the field of social sciences after completing a peer-review process. Salam is an online, peer-reviewed journal published in multiple languages. Access to its articles is free, and publication fees are minimal. The journal is recognized both inside Afghanistan and internationally, and articles are published promptly. We have provided a research platform for scholars and researchers to share their knowledge and findings with others. The articles published in Salam are supervised by distinguished and well-known scholars from around the world. This journal offers researchers the opportunity to publish their significant studies. Salam is a biannual, non-profit, peer-reviewed academic journal focused on social sciences.
The Impact of IT Integration in Human Resource Management on Employee Productivity: A Study of Afghanistan's NGOs
This research investigates the role of Information Technology (IT) in enhancing Employee Productivity within Afghanistan's non-governmental organizations (NGOs), focusing on IT-driven HR practices, IT knowledge, IT innovation, and IT infrastructure. Using a quantitative survey research design, data were collected from HR and IT professionals in the telecom, banking, and university sectors in Afghanistan, with 206 valid responses obtained. The findings reveal a strong and positive association between IT-driven HR practices and Employee Productivity, confirming their critical role in streamlining HRM processes. IT knowledge also demonstrated a significant positive effect, emphasizing the importance of employee IT competencies in achieving productivity gains. In contrast, IT innovation and IT infrastructure had limited and statistically non-significant effects, suggesting that their influence on productivity may be indirect or context-dependent. This research highlights the importance of implementing IT-driven HR systems and enhancing IT-related knowledge to improve organizational outcomes. NGOs in Afghanistan should prioritize investments in IT-based HR practices and employee IT training to optimize productivity. Further research is recommended to discover the underlying mechanisms through which IT innovation and infrastructure may influence productivity and to investigate additional contextual factors within Afghanistan’s unique organizational landscape.
BRICS and the Redefinition of the Balance of Power
The BRICS alliance was formed with the strategic objective of reshaping the global order by transitioning from a unipolar to a multipolar system. Composed of economically developing nations seeking a more active role in international affairs, BRICS aims to create a global environment in which developing and less-developed countries can play a more influential role in global governance. Due to the economic weight of its members, the organization has attracted interest from other countries wishing to join and participate in shaping global developments. A primary goal of BRICS is to reduce the dominance of the U.S. dollar as the main currency in global transactions. Instead, the bloc advocates for the use of national currencies and alternative financial mechanisms to promote a more diverse economic system. Despite facing significant challenges—including U.S. military supremacy and political and economic disparities among its members—BRICS has managed to substantially expand its economic and political influence. In pursuit of diminishing U.S. financial hegemony, BRICS has taken major steps to become more independent of Western-dominated institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. These actions directly contribute to BRICS’s larger objective of establishing a multipolar and diversified global order. Although the world appears to be moving toward a multipolar structure, BRICS must address internal challenges and achieve effective consensus among its members to fully realize this goal. If successful, the organization could usher in significant changes to the international system with broad economic and political implications.
Validating the Role of Artificial Intelligence in the Fatwa Issuance Process
This study critically delves into the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the process of fatwa issuance, analyzing its potential contributions as well as its inherent limitations within the framework of Islamic jurisprudence. The research begins by conceptualizing AI, outlining its capabilities in processing Sharia-based data, and proposing a structured approach for its application in fiqh. Specifically, it explores AI's potential to facilitate access to primary sources of legal deduction (istinbāṭ) and enhance the analysis of complex jurisprudential matters. The study proceeds with a rigorous evaluation of AI’s legal competency in relation to Islamic law, emphasizing key deficiencies such as its inability to assess evolving human interests (maṣlaḥa) and its lack of moral and ethical accountability. Through an in-depth examination of the fatwa issuance process, the research highlights that AI, at best, operates as an expert system that supports human ijtihād (independent legal reasoning) rather than replacing the authoritative role of the mufti (Islamic jurist). The findings underscore the necessity of adhering to clearly defined criteria when integrating AI into this domain, ensuring that its application remains under the supervision of qualified scholars. The study ultimately reaffirms the imperative of preserving the human and ethical dimensions of Islamic legal reasoning, advocating for a cautious yet constructive engagement with technological advancements in jurisprudential practice.
The Metaverse: Nature, Challenges, and Legal Approaches
Recent technological advancements have profoundly influenced human life, integrating a wide range of human activities into digital environments that require thoughtful adaptation and utilization. One of the most prominent manifestations of this transformation is the Metaverse—an emerging platform that reshapes how individuals interact in virtual spaces. This article examines the Metaverse as a new digital phenomenon, focusing on its nature, legal implications, and regulatory challenges. The primary objective of this research is to explore the fundamental essence of the Metaverse and address its legal dimensions, including the applicability of existing laws and the need for new legal provisions suited to this virtual realm. The study seeks to answer several key questions: What is the Metaverse? What are the legal consequences of transactions conducted within it? What is an avatar, and what type of legal personality does it possess—independent or dependent? What laws govern this space, and how are they implemented? Additional implicit legal concerns are also reviewed in this context. The study adopts a comparative legal approach by examining how existing legal principles in the physical world relate to and can be applied within two-dimensional and three-dimensional virtual environments. Given the Metaverse's novelty and evolving nature, the research is grounded in current scholarly literature, acknowledging the provisional state of legal interpretation in this area. This paper begins by defining the Metaverse and then discusses its major legal and jurisprudential challenges. It concludes with practical and academic recommendations to support a deeper understanding of the Metaverse and to guide the development of appropriate legal frameworks for its governance.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization and Its Role in Containing the Expansionist Policies of the West and the United States
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) was originally established to address territorial and border disputes among its member states—issues that emerged in the aftermath of the Soviet Union’s dissolution and the subsequent independence of several Central Asian republics. Initially operating under the framework of the “Shanghai Five,” the organization, spearheaded by China and Russia, expanded with Uzbekistan’s inclusion, evolving into the “Shanghai Six.” On June 15, 2001, it was officially reconstituted as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), broadening its objectives to encompass economic cooperation and fostering regional development among newly sovereign states. Given the founding roles of China and Russia within the SCO, contemporary geopolitical developments—including Russia’s military intervention in Ukraine, escalating tensions surrounding Taiwan, and the United States’ and NATO’s strategic opposition—have significantly intensified global political and military rivalries. These developments are propelling the international system toward a more pronounced multipolar order. On one side, China’s rapid economic ascent and Russia’s assertive foreign policy under President Vladimir Putin, and on the other, NATO’s eastward expansion alongside U.S. strategic maneuvers aimed at constraining China’s rise and exerting pressure on Russia, have contributed to growing instability characterized by military buildup and competitive strategic positioning. Within this context, a central question arises: Can the SCO, particularly with the participation of key actors such as Russia, China, and Iran—three states often positioned as adversaries to U.S. influence—serve as an emergent security alliance akin to an "Eastern NATO"? This study hypothesizes that geopolitical shifts in Eastern Europe, the Far East, and Central Asia provide conductive conditions for the SCO’s transformation into a collective defense mechanism capable of counterbalancing NATO’s influence. By consolidating the strategic power of its member states, Russia and China—alongside others—may effectively challenge expansionist Western policies, particularly in the Eastern hemisphere. This recalibration of global power dynamics could facilitate the transition from a predominantly U.S.-led unipolar structure toward a more stable multipolar order
Religious and Modern Sciences: causes of Conflict, and the Necessity of Integration
Religious and Contemporary Sciences: Motivations for Conflict and the Necessity of Integration This article explores the tension between religious sciences (ʿulūm sharʿī) and contemporary sciences in modern Islamic societies. This estrangement stems not only from historical and colonial experiences but also from deeper epistemological shifts that have impacted the intellectual and civilizational trajectory of the Muslim world. Using a historical-analytical and comparative methodology, the study seeks to address two key questions: why and how did scientific inquiry enter the Islamic world through a paradigm of conflict, and what strategies can foster meaningful engagement between these two bodies of knowledge? Through conceptual and comparative analysis, drawing on both classical Islamic sources and contemporary views of Muslim scholars, the research finds that during the golden age of Islamic civilization, there was no separation or conflict between religious and natural sciences. Rather, knowledge was viewed as a unified, theocentric pursuit embedded within the Islamic epistemological framework. This epistemic harmony was sustained by institutions such as the Nizamiya madrasas, Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), observatories, and other centers of learning. However, the introduction of secular Western intellectual paradigms during the colonial era fragmented this integrated worldview, leading to a bifurcation in knowledge systems across the Muslim world. The study concludes that reviving Islamic civilization requires the rational, epistemological, and institutional reconstruction of connections between religious and contemporary sciences. Accordingly, the research recommends the development of a unified educational system, the redefinition of scientific philosophy from an Islamic perspective, and the strengthening of interdisciplinary dialogue in line with the objectives of the Sharia and the intellectual tradition of Islamic civilization.
Colonialism, Epistemological Integration
The Need for a Constitution to Govern and Regulate the Affairs of the Country
Constitution is the most important legal and legislative document of a country, regulating all affaris, aspects and structures of the state's system. As a fundamental necessity for human societies, constitutions have already addressed these needs for quite long period, and will continue to play a vital role in fulfilling them, particularly in Afghanistan. This study examines the necessity of a constitution for all countries, with a specific focus on Afghanistan, discussing why a constitution is particularly important for Afghanistan in the present era. We also explore the role that a constitution can play in establishing a robust political system. The research methodology employed is descriptive-analytical, with a qualitative approach based on the type of content and findings. Materials were primarily gathered from library resources, with very limited use of internet sources. This research paper delves into various aspects of the topic, including the definition of a constitution, the historical evolution of constitutions, the position of the constitution in Islamic law, and the need for a constitution in Afghanistan. The study concludes with a brief summary, suggestions, and references.
Cryptocurrency in Islamic Jurisprudence from a Maqasid (Objectives)-Based Approach
Cryptocurrency is an emerging issue, due to its numerous complexities and widespread ambiguities, it requires detailed study. This study aims to precisely define and explain cryptocurrency and then analyze its position within Islamic jurisprudence using modern scientific data. The findings indicates that cryptocurrency has emerged within the context of the internet and possesses an uncertain nature, leading to significant differences of opinion among jurists and religious scholars regarding its legal identity. The majority of contemporary Islamic jurists and scholars of Islamic economics have deemed cryptocurrency as impermissible due to the widespread ambiguity surrounding its nature, the potential for deceit in transactions, the lack of governmental backing and oversight, and its general incompatibility with the objectives of Shariah concerning the preservation of wealth. Based on the extensive research provided by the majority of jurists, this study concludes that both trading in cryptocurrency and conducting transactions with it are not permissible. This ruling has been issued in the absence of explicit textual evidence or direct analogy, and with consideration of the general welfare of people, it can be viewed through the principle of "Sadd al-Dhara'i" (blocking the means to harm). However, with changes in public interest, circumstances, and the resolution of its jurisprudential challenges, this ruling could be subject to change
Political and Legal Factors Influencing Foreign Investment Attraction
Foreign investment, a key driver of economic growth, is significantly influenced by political and legal factors. This research paper studies and analyzes the factors affecting the attraction of foreign investment, with a particular focus on political and legal aspects. First, it introduces key concepts, such as capital, investor, and investment. Next, various factors influencing investment are examined, with an emphasis on political factors—such as political stability and government policies—and legal aspects, including the legal system and commercial laws. The paper explores how these factors impact foreign investors' decision-making. The research findings indicate that a stable and favorable political and legal environment can considerably facilitate the attraction of foreign investment, whereas instability and inadequate laws can deter this process. Ultimately, the paper aims to provide solutions for enhancing the environment for foreign investment and facilitating the process in developing countries.
Agency of Men and Women in Marriage from the Perspective of Islamic Jurisprudence and Law
This study, titled (Agency of Men and Women in Marriage from the Perspective of Hanafi Jurisprudence and National Laws), explore the concept of agency and its rulings in the context of marriage. Agency (wakalah) in matters of personal status is a form of voluntary representation that is well established in Islamic texts (the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, peace be upon him) as well as the scholarly consensus. Representation is divided into various forms, one of which is agency in personal status matters. Agency is a contract through which the client (Muwakkil) authorizes another person to act legally on his/her behalf in specific and define matters. In the contemporary legal contexts, an agent is someone who handles the affairs of the principal and ensures the protection of his/her rights. This contract creates a mutual legal interdependence between the principal and the agent, allowing each party to act within their respective legal rights. In this contract, the person granting authority is referred to as the principal or client, while the person receiving the authority is called the agent (wakil). According to the majority view, the pillars of agency include the principal (Muwakkil), the agent (wakil), the subject of the agency, and the contractual wording. Recognized as legitimate and lawful in both Islamic law and the statutory laws of Afghanistan, agency outlines specific rights, obligations, and conditions for the contracting parties. An agent cannot act beyond the scope of their authority, and agency is not a permanent contract; it is contingent on specific conditions and situations. It can be terminated by the dismissal of the agent by the principal, the fulfillment of the purpose of the agency, the expiration of a specified period, the death of the principal, or the loss of legal capacity by either the agent or the principal. The importance of this research lies in the fact that Islamic laws regarding agency provide clear theories that offer reasonable and unbiased solutions for resolving legal issues in various circumstances. This research aims to clarify the rulings and laws related to agency in marriage for both men and women, based on a comparative study of Hanafi jurisprudence and national laws. This study has been conducted using library research methods and concludes with findings and a bibliography.
Mandatory Bequest in Islamic Jurisprudence and Law
Undoubtedly, death is an accepted reality for every human being. After death, most Muslims leave behind wealth and property, which is then divided among the deceased's heirs according to Islamic legal rulings. However can a deceased person, during their lifetime, make a bequest of a portion of their wealth to non-heirs? Is such a bequest permissible and legitimate, or is it obligatory? Scholars have differing opinions on this matter. The majority of scholars from Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi School of thought state that, in the early period of Islam, the Quranic verse (Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:180) made it obligatory for individuals to bequeath a portion of their wealth to their parents and close relatives who were not entitled to inheritance: "Prescribed for you when death approaches [any] one of you if he leaves wealth [is that he makes] a bequest for the parents and near relatives according to what is acceptable—a duty upon the righteous." According to this verse, bequeathing wealth to relatives was mandatory, and the distribution of inheritance was initially conducted based on such bequests. However, when the verses on inheritance were revealed, this obligation was abrogated, and it became a recommended act. Now, individuals may bequeath up to one-third or less of their wealth to non-heir relatives or the poor. However, Zahiri scholars and some interpreters of the Holy Qur’an, like Jassas, the author of Ahkam al-Quran, argue that the earlier obligation still stands. Jassas condends that it remains mandatory to bequeath a portion of wealth to non-heir relatives, based on the earlier verse, and this obligation was only abrogated concerning heirs, not non-heirs. In Afghan civil law and the Egyptian law on bequests, a mandatory bequest is recognized only for grandchildren whose father passed away during the lifetime of their grandfather or grandmother and who, under inheritance laws, would not be entitled to inherit.
The most significant legacy we receive from scholars and intellectuals is knowledge. Our predecessors could have trained students to be the heirs of their knowledge instead of writing and composing works. However, they fully understood the importance and vital role of writing in preserving scientific heritage. This recognition led them to engage in writing from an early age. In the past, students aspiring to be writers would study and even memorize books that, in addition to conveying thought and philosophy, were adorned with the elegance of eloquence. Many ancient schools, after the Quran, books such as “Panj Ganj”, “Hafez”, “Bedil”, “Gulistan”, and “Bustan” of Saadi were taught. A deep study of these books elevated the literary talents and passion for writing among seekers of knowledge. However, as journalistic literature began to overshadowed our traditional literary treasures, lengthy yet superficial writings replaced concise but profound ones. In response, some compassionate writers established rules and guidlines for writing principles, focusing on Persian orthography, punctuation, word accentuation, and the handling of foreign terms. The current study follows this same path, but with some insights that are relatively more novel.
Consultation (Shura): Formation, Ruling, Procedures, and the Binding Nature of its Resolutions
This research article addresses a critical and significant issue: the concept of Shura (consultation) and the principle of Shuraism. In Islamic jurisprudence, Shura serves as a fundamental pillar of societal life, gaining even greater significance in matters that pertain to the majority of the community, particularly those of a political nature. Shura is recognized as a religious obligation, with a consensus made among Islamic scholars affirming its importance. Islam has delineated broad domains for consultation and established specific criteria for those who are eligible to participate as member of Shura. Regarding the implementation of Shura, Islamic guidelines mandate that deliberations on social issues must be conducted collectively within a Shura council, as individual consultations are insufficient. In the contemporary context, characterized by the absence of Mujtahid rulers (qualified jurists) in the Islamic world, the decisions reached through Shura must be binding, as required by Islamic law. These decisions shall be based on the principle of majority rule, which is considered as a primary mechanism for decision-making within the Shura framework. By adhering to these Islamic precepts in the implementation of Shura under the current circumstances, numerous challenges confronting Muslim societies can be effectively addressed. This study explores these themes and related matters in detail.
Afghanistan’s Renewable Energy Landscape: Addressing Challenges, Policy Framework, and Recommendations
Afghanistan, a developing nation, aims to generate 10 percent of its electricity from renewable sources by 2032 to overcome challenges like imported electricity dependency, rural electrification gaps, and environmental degradation. This paper offers a comprehensive review of Afghanistan's renewable energy landscape, including potential, current capacity, and future plans through utilizing secondary data collection methods. Despite abundant renewable energy potential in hydropower, solar, wind, and biomass, challenges like unclear policies, limited expertise, security risks, and public engagement barriers persist. To address these hurdles, a clear national renewable energy policy, enhanced institutional capacity, and public-private partnerships are crucial. Overcoming these challenges can help Afghanistan achieve its renewable energy goals, while also fostering peacebuilding, state-building, and climate change mitigation.
Quiddity of Intellectual and Intellectuality: A Comparative Exploration
The conceptual landscape within social sciences lacks a singular, universally accepted definition for phenomena. This inherent ambiguity and heterogeneity persistently challenge our understanding of terms, including “intellectual” and “intellectuality.” Diverse perspectives have shaped distinct interpretations of these concepts, resulting in multifaceted definitions. · Kant’s Perspective: Immanuel Kant characterizes the intellectual as an individual who attains intellectual maturity and engages in independent thought. · Socratic and Platonic Notions: Socrates and Plato associate intellectuals with a critical consciousness of society, emphasizing their role as societal critics. · Jean-Paul Sartre’s View: Jean-Paul Sartre identifies intellectuals as individuals with a mission—a purpose beyond mere contemplation. · Ali Shariati’s Definition: Ali Shariati views intellectuals as self-aware agents with a social mission, bridging theory and practice. However, context matters significantly. Each term acquires specific connotations within a particular framework, influencing societal interactions. Precise definitions are essential for coherent theoretical discourse and practical applications. Despite the inherent diversity of interpretations, relative definitions can emerge from this multiplicity of perspectives. In this article, we endeavor to explore the quiddity of “intellectual” and “intellectuality,” examining definitions provided by scholars and experts, while highlighting their distinctive characteristics.
Studying Narrations Accusing the Prophet of Contemplating Suicide
This scholarly research delves into the multifaceted narratives surrounding the period of revelation interruption and the profound emotional state experienced by the revered Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). While authentic narrations discuss the initial revelation of the Holy Qur’an and its subsequent interruption for a brief period, certain unverified and unreliable narrations not only describe revelations occurring during sleep but also implicate the Prophet (PBUH) in contemplating suicide. The compilation of Hadiths by Al-Bukhari consistently emphasizes wakeful revelations and does not allude to the Prophet’s suicidal intentions. However, a singular narration attributed to Ma’mar bin Rashid San’ani, transmitted from Imam Ibn Shihab Zuhri, introduces the notion of the Prophet’s contemplation of suicide following the interruption of revelation. Curiously, Imam Ibn Shihab Zuhri conveys this narration without providing a specific chain of narrators, employing the phrase “«فیما بَلَغَنَا»” (as it has reached us). It is essential to recognize that Imam Zuhri occupied a subordinate position among the Tabi’in (successors to the Companions of the Prophet), and a considerable temporal gap separated him from the Prophet (PBUH). Consequently, eminent Hadith scholars criticized Zuhri’s Marasil (reports transmitted without a complete chain of narrators) as weak and unreliable. Furthermore, other Hadiths corroborating this unfounded narrative, as found in works by Tabari and Tabaqat Ibn Sa’d, exhibit textual deficiencies and inconsistencies with authentic narrations and rational reasoning.
Protection of Religious Sanctities and the Imperativeness to Criminalize Disrespect in International Law
The act of disrespecting sacred religious values is neither novel nor confined to any particular religion. Throughout history, instances of insulting religious sanctities—such as God, divine scriptures, prophets, religious traditions, teachings, holy sites, and rituals—have consistently evoked strong reactions from adherents. The intersection of religion with human life underscores the gravity of such disrespect, rendering insults, transgressions, and impoliteness wholly unacceptable. This research, conducted through an analytical-descriptive approach and drawing upon library sources, aims to expound upon the imperativeness of safeguarding religious sacred elements and, correspondingly, the need to criminalize their desecration within the framework of international law. Two fundamental questions guide our inquiry: Why should religious sanctities be protected? Is it necessary to criminalize insults directed at religious sanctities in international legal contexts? The research findings underscore that while international laws recognize the right to religious freedom, they lack robust preventive mechanisms to shield religious sanctities from insult. Although freedom of speech is a fundamental right, it does not grant license to violate and demean the spiritual beliefs of others. Insults, irrespective of their context, fundamentally contravene basic human rights. Such acts not only foment animosity but also rupture the fabric of human civility, potentially inciting harmful violence. Therefore, it is imperative to criminalize insults directed at religious sanctities becomes evident, particularly when addressed at the international level. By doing so, we acknowledge the delicate balance between freedom of expression and the imperative to protect the sacred, fostering a global environment of mutual respect and understanding.
Afghan Refugees in Pakistan, Forced Repatriation, and its Consequences
This brief article attempts to provide an overview of the historical and current situation of Afghan refugees in Pakistan in terms of quantity and quality through accredited statistics. In October 2023, the interim Pakistani government decided to immediately deport 1.7 million Afghan refugees who, it claims, lack legal documentation. The researcher discusses the motives behind the hasty and ill-timed forced repatriation of Afghan refugees, considering the unsuitable weather in both the origin and host countries. The study concludes that the Pakistani government’s decision to deport Afghan refugees is a political and security decision, not directly related to the refugees’ own circumstances. The article analyzes both positive and negative reactions within Pakistan and internationally to the deportation process, indicating that overall, the level of criticism and opposition to this action by the Pakistani government is more intense than approval and consent. The article concludes with a discussion on the humanitarian implications of forced repatriation and its effects on the relations between the two countries, showing that the action will likely lead to further deterioration in Kabul-Islamabad relations across various sectors. Finally, the article presents suggestions for the relevant authorities to properly address the issue of refugees and returnees.
Commissionerate for Afghan refugees in Pakistan
The Exegesis of Explicit (Muhkamat) and Implicit (Mustashabihat) Verses in the Holy Qur’an: The Role of Stopping (Waqf) According to Early Scholars
The exegesis of the Holy Qur’an has been a subject of scholarly inquiry for centuries, with early scholars offering diverse perspectives on the classification and definition of explicit (Muhkamat) and implicit (Mustashabihat) verses. These scholars dissected non-explicit verses into various categories, each with distinct characteristics. Amidst these discussions, the concept of “stopping” (Waqf) assumes significant importance, particularly in understanding the nuances of these verses. The verse, “He is the One Who has revealed to you, ˹O Prophet˺, the Book, some of whose verses are precise—they form the foundation of the Book—while others are elusive” (Qur’an 3:7), serves as a focal point for unraveling the interplay between explicit and implicit elements. Deviant hearts exploit the elusive verses, propagating doubt through distorted interpretations. However, only Allah comprehends their full meaning. Conversely, those grounded in knowledge affirm their belief in the Qur’an as divine revelation. In this concise article, we explore the role of “stopping” (Waqf) in defining and categorizing explicit and non-explicit verses, drawing insights from early scholars of Qur’anic interpretation. We elucidate the conditions governing “stopping” and emphasize the quality of reasoning applied to these verses. Ultimately, we highlight the most favorable scholarly opinions. In the delineation of explicit and non-explicit verses, early scholars engaged in spirited debates regarding the placement of “stopping” (Waqf) within the verse. Some favored one form of “stopping” while disregarding the other, while others endorsed alternative “stopping” patterns. Notably, a group of scholars restricted “stopping” to the blessed word “Allah” within the verse, asserting that non-explicit verses remain inscrutable, accessible only to Allah’s knowledge.
Taxation and Its Ruling in Islamic Sharia: A Comprehensive Analysis
This scholarly study delves into a critical subject—the jurisprudential ruling regarding taxation within the framework of Islamic Sharia, aligning with contemporary economic perspectives. Given the divergent opinions surrounding this issue, its significance cannot be overstated. The research sheds light on both the viewpoints that conform to Islamic Sharia principles and those that diverge from them. To meticulously examine the ruling on taxes within the context of Islamic Sharia, particularly in light of contemporary economic paradigms, it becomes imperative to establish precise definitions for these taxes. Consequently, the initial chapter succinctly outlines modern tax structures, facilitating informed decisions regarding their legal status. Clarity regarding the essence and specifics of taxation is essential for rendering a well-founded judgment. The second crucial aspect involves investigating whether Islam provides specific sources to support the budget of an Islamic state. Are these sources considered tawqifi (determined by divine legislation), or do they allow room for ijtihad (independent juristic reasoning)? Furthermore, can additional sources beyond those explicitly mentioned in Sharia texts be incorporated? This research underscores that while Sharia indeed designates certain funding sources for the Islamic government, matters related to transactions and trade fall within the realm of ijtihad. Consequently, during the caliphate of Hazrat Umar bin Al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him), supplementary sources were introduced. In light of this, the study concludes that, absent any Sharia impediments, levying taxes to finance the Islamic government aligns with the inherent nature of Sharia. The third significant issue is that one of the key challenges related to the imposition of forced or compulsory taxes by the government within the framework of Sharia law is the prohibition against taking someone’s property without their consent. Such forced taxation is considered impermissible according to Islamic principles. The fourth chapter of this study delves into the conditions under which the Sharia-based obstacle to taxation—specifically, the act of taking people’s property without their consent—can be legally removed. The central question revolves around the permissibility of taxation once this barrier is eliminated. Conversely, when the obstacle persists, the imposition of taxes remains unlawful. Our research concludes that this barrier can be effectively removed in the following two scenarios: First, the concept of “immense necessity” within legal discourse pertains to exceptional circumstances in which a legitimate government is authorized to treat individuals’ property as permissible for state purposes. Second, in the context of non-emergency scenarios, the permissibility of taxation hinges upon specific legal conditions. Individuals must willingly commit to paying taxes through their elected representatives, and this commitment constitutes a legally binding promise. Additionally, a comprehensive synoptic tax payment contract should be established between the government and its citizens. Within this detailed contract, the annual tax amount must be meticulously determined, specifying the conditions and criteria for taxation. Each citizen should receive a copy of this contract, ensuring transparency and accountability. It is imperative that tax rates and charging mechanisms are clearly defined in accordance with legal and ethical norms. Thus, taxation is an indispensable instrument for the advancement of nations and the effective functioning of governments. Without adequate revenue from taxes, countries face significant limitations in their ability to address societal needs, invest in infrastructure, and promote economic growth. However, this critical fiscal function must align with Sharia principles, particularly for Muslim governments.
Change of Currency value and its impact on debts repayment
In the contemporary era, the fluctuation in the value of money is a significant concern that directly impacts individuals and communities. Islamic Sharia scholars have recognized this as a juridical emerging issue and have extensively addressed it. They assert that the nature of money, its characteristics, printing, and the quantity of issuance are matters within the purview of government authority to safeguard the currency's value. The primary objective of this article is to elucidate the Sharia ruling regarding the repayment of debts in cases of changes in the value of money. If the debt is denominated in gold, dinars, silver, or dirhams, jurists unanimously contend that changes in value are not considered, and the debtor is obligated to repay the same amount originally owed. Similarly, when the debt is in the form of metal money, it is generally treated like gold and silver, with changes in value not being recognized. However, Imam Abu Yusuf (RA) holds a distinct view. He posits that in both scenarios, whether there's an increase or decrease in the value of metal money, the debtor should repay the debt based on the prevailing price on the day the loan was initiated. This viewpoint aligns with the Hanafi school of thought. Contemporary scholars offer two primary perspectives concerning the repayment of debts denominated in modern customary paper money, contingent upon specific circumstances: 1. Usual Situation: When a country's currency remains stable without significant inflation or drastic value fluctuations, minor variations are not considered in debt repayment. This is because prices of goods fluctuate naturally over time, but these changes are not factored into loan repayment calculations. 2. Exceptional and Special Situation: In cases where a country's currency rapidly loses value due to unusual circumstances, the term "ghabnfahish" or deceit comes into play. In such situations, if a debt is repaid in the same quantity as originally owed, the creditor may not receive their full entitlement. To address this, knowledgeable scholars should calculate the difference and ensure compensation for the loss. Regarding currency demonetization by a government, there are two scenarios: 1. When a government demonetizes its old currency and replaces it with a new one without a significant change in value. In such cases, individuals typically have a specified period to exchange their old currency for the new one. Money in bank accounts is updated automatically, and creditors receive their due in the new currency, rendering the demand for the old currency unnecessary. 2. When a government demonetizes old currency and introduces new currency with a significant difference in value. For instance, when the current Afghani replaced the previous currency during Professor Rabani's government, and the new currency held a higher.
Planting Steel into Concrete: Scientific Methods and Practical Experiences
This article presents the outcomes of research focused on the proper reinforcement of steel embedded in concrete elements of a building, including foundations, columns, and piers. The objective of this study is to provide a scientific and practical understanding of the results obtained from this process. Embedding reinforcing steel in concrete presents a significant challenge in Kabul city, emphasizing the need for a viable solution. Notably, there have been instances where municipal officials mistakenly severed overlapping steel connections in buildings, even after they had been correctly placed. Consequently, this article proposes a scientifically grounded approach to address this issue. Three different solutions for embedding reinforcing steel into concrete are introduced; each of these methods could be adaptable based on engineer recommendations or available resources. Each of these methods possesses unique characteristics, and this research offers a comprehensive exploration of these approaches, both from a theoretical and practical perspective. Our approach to achieving our research goal involves a thorough review of prior works, laboratory testing, compliance with established building codes, and on-site field testing. Laboratory results confirm that the process of embedding reinforcing steel into hardened concrete demonstrates strong resistance and complies with all technical requirements. In conclusion, among the three proposed methods, one stands out as the most promising. The article concludes by presenting recommendations aimed at further enhancing this research and urges engineers to give due consideration to these suggestions when embedding reinforcing steel into concrete. It is our hope that this research will yield positive outcomes for our construction engineers and contribute to the improvement of the process of embedding reinforcing steel into concrete.
Juridical Legitimacy of Insurance and Its Legal Nature
Insurance is a contractual arrangement employed to safeguard one's property from financial and economic risks while providing the insurer protection against unexpected losses. The primary objective of insurance is to mitigate financial losses and cover unforeseen expenses resulting from events such as accidents or fires. This system involves three key parties: the insured, the insurer, and the subject of insurance. The insurer, or insurance company, bears the responsibility for fulfilling the financial obligations of compensation. The insured, also known as the policyholder, can be either a natural person or a legal entity who commits to making specified payments in exchange for the acquisition of an insurance policy. In Afghanistan, insurance serves as a financial tool to shield against financial and economic risks, similar to its role in other countries. Various types of insurance are available in the country, including fire insurance, health insurance, and business insurance. Nevertheless, this study illustrates the legal aspects and the legal nature of insurance, as some religious scholars contend that insurance contracts are impermissible under Sharia law. The lack of awareness among the Afghan population about insurance has been a significant factor contributing to its limited growth. This study also delves into the legal framework surrounding insurance contracts and addresses associated concerns.
A Study of Air Pollution in Kabul City and its Relationship with Climate Change
Air pollution has severe consequences for human health, particularly on the respiratory system, and its impact on climate change is unmistakable. Over the past decade, the air quality in Kabul city, especially during winters, has deteriorated significantly. This has led to fatalities, particularly among children and the elderly, and has exacerbated climate change. The primary source of air pollution in Kabul city stems from the emission of greenhouse gases resulting from human activities. This research focuses on quantifying air pollution in Kabul city, specifically in terms of greenhouse gas emissions such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide (CO2) across three sectors: energy, industry, agriculture, and livestock, during the years 2012, 2013, and 2014. The calculations were performed using the IPCC-2006 software. The findings reveal that during the winter season, the emission of sulfur dioxide exceeded 0.164 parts per million (PPM), and carbon dioxide emissions reached 56,656.22 gigagrams in 2013, signifying an increase primarily attributed to the energy production sector and fossil fuel consumption. Additionally, the levels of particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) in the air exceeded 35 micrograms per cubic meter in summer, spring, and fall. To mitigate its serious impacts, several measures are recommended, including promoting green spaces, restricting the import of low-quality fuel, implementing effective air pollution management, raising environmental awareness among the public, encouraging civic cooperation in maintaining the cleanliness of Kabul city, improving traffic management, and implementing proper waste disposal practices. The study's findings underscore the noticeable climate change trends in Kabul city over the past decade, driven by rising temperatures and increased energy demand. Consequently, it is imperative for authorities and relevant organizations to develop a comprehensive plan to combat air pollution, curb the consumption of fossil fuels, and heed the serious warning presented by these results.
How the Courts of the Islamic Emirate Handle Civil Cases in the Light of Decrees and General guidance
The administration of justice and the safeguarding of citizens' rights are fundamental characteristics of an Islamic government, and the judiciary plays a central and esteemed role in preserving the principles of justice within the framework of Islam. The success of any government hinges on the establishment of a robust, impartial, and independent judicial system, complete with written laws and procedural guidelines. Moreover, the application of common sense is vital to address the diverse problems that society may encounter. In contemporary times, governments view it as their responsibility to fortify, sustain, and enhance public trust through the development of an efficient judicial system It is indisputable that society expects the government to administer justice, grant rightful entitlements to individuals, curtail the influence of self-interest-driven individuals, prevent chaos, and foster a tranquil environment within society. Despite the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan having promulgated two sets of laws, namely administrative rules of the courts and judicial rules of the courts, along with issuing various decrees to regulate matters pertaining to legal disputes, there is a lack of public awareness about these rules and regulations. This research endeavors to examine how the courts within the Islamic Emirate handle civil cases in light of the decrees of the Amir ul Mumineen and the laws promulgated by the Supreme Court of the Islamic Emirate, particularly those that are not readily accessible to the public or are not widely known. As a conclusion of this study, I have suggested some recommendations to enhance and strengthen the judicial system. The endeavor to strengthen the judicial system is a critical component of nurturing a just and orderly society, aligning with the principles of Islamic governance, and ensuring that citizens' rights are upheld in accordance with the law.
Analysis of the Phenomenon of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Myths, Realities and Rapidly Changing Situation of Technological Developments
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a significant phenomenon in the realm of technology, having wrought transformative changes across global industries and our daily lives. This research paper delves into the multifaceted domain of AI, encompassing its historical evolution, its profound impact on industries, its merits, drawbacks, dispelling common misconceptions, and an exploration of various AI language models. Moreover, we scrutinize the inherent limitations of these models and offer insights into the evolving technological landscape, along with glimpses into the potential future trajectories. For those seeking a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic tech landscape, this paper provides essential insights.
Illegal Trade Competition and its Legal Consequences
Business or trade competition, encompassing both its legal and illegal aspects, is considered one of the most crucial and contentious topics within commercial law, benefiting individuals and societies in the contemporary era. Although the origins of business competition laws can be traced back to the United States approximately one and a half centuries ago with the enactment of the first such law, known as the Sherman Anti-trust Act, aimed at curbing trusts, in our country, Afghanistan, commercial law, specifically the Principles of Trade, was formally enacted during the reign of King Mohammad Zahir Shah in 1957 and includes rules regarding business competition. After the Bonn Agreement and the ratification of the new Constitution, the concept of a market economy has been embraced. In the framework of a market economy, governments possess the authority to intervene in the marketplace by enacting legislation designed to curb monopolistic practices and prevent any forms of anticompetitive behavior by suppliers of goods and services that may detrimentally impact consumers and society at large. This article endeavors to shed light on the significance and objectives of business competition, aiming to enhance awareness regarding this vital subject. To this end, the article will elucidate key concepts of business competition, explore both legal and illegal remedies and solutions, and discuss the punishment of illicit competitive practices.
{وَقَرنَ فِي بُيُوتِكُنَّ} The Preferred interpretation of the Verse
This study endeavors to rectify a misconception regarding the interpretation of Surah al Ahzab verse (33). Some scholars, who may not fully grasp the nuances of non-explicit or allegorical verses—those verses with multiple meanings and interpretations—tend to separate the first and second parts of the aforementioned verse {وَقَرنَ فِي بُيُوتِكُنَّ}. In doing so, they often focus solely on the first part and overlook the explanatory nature of the second part, leading to a misinterpretation of this blessed verse. This article aims to briefly address and correct this misunderstanding. The accurate interpretation is that Muslim women are permitted to leave their homes while adhering to the Sharia veil for lawful activities. This interpretation aligns with the consensus of jurists and Hadith scholars, reinforcing the notion that it is incorrect to separate and understand both sentences of the verse independently. Therefore, the correct interpretation of the Quran is the one adopted by the majority of interpreters. The verse can be understood as follows: "O Muslim women! Stay at home, i.e., do not appear as the display of the former times of ignorance." In essence, this verse signifies that Muslim women are not allowed to adopt the immodest practices of the past, but as long as they do not engage in such behaviors, they are permitted to leave their homes for lawful activities. Consequently, this research concludes that depriving a large segment of society of their rights based on an incorrect interpretation of this verse is unjust. However, women who do not observe Islamic etiquette when venturing outside should be advised accordingly.
Priorities Related to Afghanistan's Foreign Relations in the Current Situation
In this concise article, we undertake a comprehensive examination of Afghanistan's foreign policy priorities in the current geopolitical landscape. Additionally, we provide a succinct proposal for government officials, outlining key focal points for shaping an effective foreign policy agenda. Afghanistan's foreign policy priorities can be categorized into three main areas: those pertaining to foreign relations objectives, those centered on the establishment of foreign ties, and those concerning constructive engagement by the Islamic Emirate with the international community. First and foremost, we delve into the priorities associated with foreign relations objectives. These priorities hold paramount significance as they set the course for Afghanistan's foreign policy, delineating the desired direction for these diplomatic relationships. In this article, we outline these priorities as specific points, emphasizing their importance for all political administrations within the country. Subsequently, we address priorities related to the establishment of foreign relations. We identify five key priorities in this domain, which include: fostering unanimous coordination among Islamic Emirate leaders concerning foreign relations; maintaining a delicate balance between Sharia principles and foreign relations decisions; nurturing trust-based relationships rather than relying on mere symbolic gestures; upholding credibility in all diplomatic dealings; and pursuing a policy of balanced or neutral international engagement. Lastly, we elaborate on priorities linked to positive engagement by the Islamic Emirate with other nations. We underscore the significance of the Islamic Emirate's multifaceted responsibilities in establishing relations and collaborations with other countries. To this end, we emphasize the importance of prioritizing key areas, such as regional connectivity, mutual economic benefits, water-related issues, addressing foreign armed jihadist groups and security concerns, preventing the imposition of international agendas, resolving border disputes, tackling illegal migrations, among other pertinent matters. By giving due attention to these priorities, we can cultivate constructive relationships with a multitude of nations worldwide. It is imperative that these aforementioned priorities are rigorously observed throughout all stages of Afghanistan's foreign policy endeavors. Complying with these priorities promises to bring much-needed stability to Afghanistan's international relations in the current complex environment. Conversely, disregarding these priorities will likely consign any aspirations of successful foreign relations to mere wishful thinking and unattainable dreams.
Increasing Engineers’ Role in Construction Safety: Opportunities and Barriers
A number of factors suggest engineering and Construction professionals should discuss increasing designer’s role in construction safety. Design civil engineer could contribute to construction worker safety by performing five tasks differently than current custom and practice: reviewing their designs, creating design documents, assisting the owner in procuring construction, reviewing submittals, and inspecting work in progress. However, four sets of major barriers would prevent designers from increasing worker safety through these tasks: lack of safety expertise, lack of understanding of construction processes, typical contract terms, and professional fees. Potential ways for reducing these barriers are suggested. Some regulation like The United Kingdom regulations requiring engineers to design for safety are summarized, but it is concluded that similar legislation in the United States would not be appropriate.